1. Introduction
The quality of education is strongly influenced by the quality of interactions among teachers, students, instructional content, and the learning environment. Teachers are not merely transmitters of information; they are planners of learning, organizers of classroom environments, providers of feedback, and facilitators of students’ active engagement. Consequently, teacher effectiveness cannot be adequately evaluated solely in terms of content delivery or years of teaching experience. Rather, it should be understood as a multidimensional construct involving teachers’ beliefs, professional knowledge, instructional skills, and classroom behaviors.
One of the most important constructs for explaining teachers’ professional performance is teacher self-efficacy. Within Bandura’s social cognitive theory, self-efficacy refers to individuals’ beliefs regarding their ability to organize and execute the actions required to achieve desired levels of performance (Bandura, 1989). In education, teacher self-efficacy concerns teachers’ judgments about their capacity to influence students’ learning and engagement, including under challenging classroom conditions. The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale developed by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) conceptualizes teacher self-efficacy through several domains, including instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. These three domains constitute the central dimensions examined in the present study.
The significance of teacher self-efficacy lies partly in its potential influence on teachers’ planning, instructional decision-making, classroom management, and efforts to create opportunities for student participation. Recent evidence also indicates that teacher self-efficacy is associated with instructional quality and student learning outcomes. For example, recent meta-analytic evidence based on 71 studies involving more than 254,000 teachers and students reported a significant association between teacher self-efficacy and students’ academic achievement, although the overall effect size was relatively small. The evidence further suggested that efficacy beliefs related to instructional strategies and classroom management may have stronger associations with student outcomes than efficacy related specifically to student engagement.
Teacher characteristics and professional competencies, including self-efficacy, instructional planning and implementation, classroom organization and management, assessment, and feedback, have also been associated with students’ academic achievement. Thus, examining teacher self-efficacy is important not only from a psychological perspective but also as an indicator of professional teaching quality.
The present study therefore approaches teacher self-efficacy as a multidimensional professional construct rather than as a general psychological belief. Specifically, it examines teachers’ perceived efficacy in three practical domains: (a) selecting and implementing appropriate instructional strategies, (b) managing classroom environments effectively, and (c) engaging students actively in the learning process.
This conceptual distinction is consistent with recent empirical evidence suggesting that effective teaching emerges when teachers’ efficacy beliefs are accompanied by appropriate pedagogical knowledge and professional skills. Recent research has indicated that teachers with stronger self-efficacy and general pedagogical knowledge tend to demonstrate higher levels of instructional quality. Moreover, recent meta-analytic research has shown that classroom-management self-efficacy is influenced by multiple individual and contextual factors, suggesting that it should not be regarded simply as a function of teaching experience.
Accordingly, the central research question addressed in this study is:
Do the teachers included in the study report desirable levels of self-efficacy in instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement?
2. Theoretical Background and Research Literature
2.1. Teacher Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a central construct within Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Individuals who possess stronger beliefs in their capabilities are generally more likely to undertake challenging tasks, persist when encountering obstacles, and employ alternative strategies to overcome difficulties (Bandura, 1989).
Self-efficacy is particularly important in teaching because teachers continuously encounter complex and unpredictable situations. Individual differences among students, behavioral challenges, differences in learning levels, resource constraints, and the need to respond to diverse educational needs require teachers to possess strong beliefs in their professional capabilities.
Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) conceptualized teacher self-efficacy as a multidimensional construct. Their model includes efficacy for instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement, which constitute the three dimensions examined in the present study. The findings of the current study likewise indicate desirable levels across all three dimensions.
Teacher self-efficacy is theoretically important because it may influence teachers’ effort, persistence, instructional decision-making, and responses to classroom difficulties. Teachers who believe that they are capable of influencing students’ learning are more likely to persist in difficult situations and seek alternative instructional approaches rather than attributing failure solely to students or contextual circumstances.
2.2. Teacher Self-Efficacy and Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies encompass the methods and practices teachers employ to facilitate learning, organize instructional content, explain concepts, formulate questions, provide feedback, and create opportunities for practice and application. Teachers with stronger self-efficacy are more likely to adapt their instructional practices to students’ needs rather than relying rigidly on a single instructional method.
Recent research supports the importance of teachers’ instructional planning and implementation as competencies associated with students’ academic outcomes. Instructional strategies such as active retrieval, elaboration, distributed practice, and cognitively engaging learning activities may contribute to effective learning when appropriately aligned with instructional goals and content.
In the present study, the mean score for instructional strategies was 3.78, with a reported t value of 6.15, indicating that this dimension was significantly above the reference level.
This finding suggests that the teachers included in the study perceived themselves as capable of selecting and implementing instructional approaches that support effective teaching.
2.3. Teacher Self-Efficacy and Classroom Management
Classroom management extends beyond maintaining behavioral control. It involves establishing structure, organizing rules and routines, managing instructional time, preventing disruptions, developing positive teacher–student relationships, and creating a safe and supportive learning environment.
Strong classroom-management self-efficacy may enable teachers to interpret behavioral difficulties as manageable professional challenges rather than as evidence of personal failure. Teachers who believe in their ability to manage classroom situations are more likely to remain persistent and employ proactive strategies when behavioral or instructional difficulties arise.
Recent meta-analytic evidence has demonstrated that classroom-management self-efficacy is associated with a range of individual and contextual factors and should therefore be addressed as an important component of teacher professional development.
In the present study, the mean score for classroom management was 3.63, with a reported t value of 6.26, indicating that teachers’ perceived efficacy in classroom management was significantly above the reference level.
2.4. Teacher Self-Efficacy and Student Engagement
Student engagement represents an important indicator of teaching quality. Effective teachers create learning environments in which students are not merely passive recipients of information but actively participate in discussions, questioning, problem-solving, collaborative activities, and other forms of meaningful learning.
Recent research on classroom dialogue further highlights the importance of interactive teacher–student communication. Teacher talk alone does not necessarily guarantee improved learning outcomes; rather, opportunities for students to express their ideas and respond to probing questions may contribute more directly to productive classroom interaction.
The findings of the present study indicate that the mean score for student engagement was 3.85, with a reported t value of 6.52, suggesting a desirable level of perceived efficacy in promoting student engagement.
3. Conceptual Framework
Based on the theoretical literature and empirical evidence, teacher self-efficacy is conceptualized in the present study as a multidimensional construct manifested through three major professional domains:
Teacher Self-Efficacy → Effective Instructional Strategies
Teacher Self-Efficacy → Effective Classroom Management
Teacher Self-Efficacy → Active Student Engagement
This framework avoids conceptualizing teacher effectiveness as a single, undifferentiated construct and instead focuses on three domains that teachers must address in everyday classroom practice: instructional decision-making, management of the learning environment, and activation of students’ participation.
4. Research Hypotheses
Based on the theoretical literature and recent empirical evidence, the following hypotheses were formulated.
Hypothesis 1 : Teachers report a desirable level of self-efficacy in employing instructional strategies.
This hypothesis is grounded in the assumption that teachers with stronger efficacy beliefs are more capable of selecting, implementing, and adapting instructional strategies according to classroom conditions and students’ learning needs. Contemporary evidence emphasizes instructional planning and implementation as important dimensions of teacher competence associated with student outcomes. The mean score of 3.78 and t value of 6.15 obtained in the present study provide empirical support for the desirable status of this dimension.
Hypothesis 2: Teachers report a desirable level of self-efficacy in classroom management.
This hypothesis is based on the assumption that effective classroom management requires teachers to believe in their ability to organize the learning environment, establish appropriate routines, prevent disruptive behavior, maintain instructional order, and develop positive relationships with students. Recent meta-analytic evidence emphasizes classroom-management self-efficacy as an important component of teachers’ professional functioning. The mean score of 3.63 and t value of 6.26 obtained in this study support the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3: Teachers report a desirable level of self-efficacy in promoting students’ engagement in the learning process.
This hypothesis is based on the proposition that teachers’ beliefs in their ability to influence students may affect their willingness to create opportunities for active participation, discussion, questioning, collaboration, and problem-solving. Contemporary research on classroom interaction emphasizes the importance of opportunities for students to express ideas and participate actively in instructional dialogue. The mean score of 3.85 and t value of 6.52 provide support for the hypothesis in the present sample.
5. Method
5.1. Research Design and Participants
The study employed an applied, descriptive-survey research design. The statistical population consisted of teachers working in public primary schools included in the study who had more than 10 years of teaching experience. According to the original research design, the population consisted of approximately 250 teachers, and a sample of 151 participants was selected based on the Krejcie and Morgan sampling table. Simple random sampling was employed.
The demographic characteristics reported in the original study indicated that 65% of participants were female and 35% were male. In terms of educational attainment, 63% held bachelor’s degrees, 30% held master’s degrees, and 7% held associate degrees. The largest proportion of participants reported 16–20 years of teaching experience.
5.2. Instrument
Data were collected using the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) developed by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001). The instrument assesses teachers’ perceived efficacy in three major domains: instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. The original study reports that the instrument had established validity and reliability in previous research.
5.3. Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a one-sample t-test. The one-sample t-test was used to determine whether the mean scores of the three dimensions of teacher self-efficacy differed significantly from the reference level. The analysis was conducted at the 95% confidence level.
6. Results
The demographic findings indicated that 65% of the respondents were female and 35% were male. Regarding educational qualifications, 63% held bachelor’s degrees, 30% held master’s degrees, and 7% held associate degrees. The largest proportion of respondents had 16–20 years of teaching experience.
Table 1. One-Sample t-Test Results for the Dimensions of Teacher Self-Efficacy
| Dimension | Mean | t | df | Sig. | Interpretation |
| Student engagement | 3.85 | 6.52 | 149 | < .001 | Desirable |
| Instructional strategies | 3.78 | 6.15 | 149 | < .001 | Desirable |
| Classroom management | 3.63 | 6.26 | 149 | < .001 | Desirable |
The findings indicate that all three dimensions of teacher self-efficacy were significantly above the reference level. Student engagement had the highest mean score (M = 3.85), followed by instructional strategies (M = 3.78) and classroom management (M = 3.63).
7. Discussion
The present study examined teacher self-efficacy across three major domains: instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. The results demonstrated desirable levels of perceived efficacy across all three dimensions. These findings are consistent with the conceptualization of teacher self-efficacy proposed by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), which emphasizes the multidimensional nature of teachers’ efficacy beliefs.
The first finding concerned teachers’ self-efficacy in instructional strategies. The results suggest that the teachers included in the study perceived themselves as capable of selecting and implementing appropriate instructional practices. This finding is consistent with contemporary research emphasizing instructional planning and implementation as important components of effective teaching. Teacher professional-development programs should therefore move beyond purely theoretical training and emphasize opportunities for practice, peer observation, feedback, and reflective examination of instructional performance.
The second finding indicated a desirable level of classroom-management self-efficacy. This finding is particularly important because even sophisticated instructional strategies may have limited effectiveness in a classroom characterized by poor organization, disruptive behavior, or a lack of psychological safety. Classroom management should therefore be viewed not merely as behavioral control but as an essential condition for effective learning.
The third finding concerned teachers’ self-efficacy in promoting student engagement. This dimension obtained the highest mean score among the three domains. The result is consistent with contemporary approaches to active learning, which emphasize students’ participation in discussion, questioning, problem-solving, and collaborative learning. Effective teaching increasingly requires teachers to move from a predominantly transmissive role toward a facilitative role in which students are given meaningful opportunities to construct and communicate knowledge.
Taken together, the findings suggest that teacher self-efficacy should be understood as a multidimensional professional belief system manifested through teachers’ perceived capacity to design and implement instruction, manage the learning environment, and activate student participation.
However, the findings should not be interpreted as evidence of a causal relationship between teacher self-efficacy and students’ academic achievement. The present study employed a descriptive-survey design and relied on teachers’ self-reported perceptions. Consequently, the study establishes the desirable status of the examined dimensions within the sample but does not demonstrate that increasing teacher self-efficacy necessarily causes higher student achievement.
This distinction is particularly important because recent meta-analytic evidence indicates that although teacher self-efficacy is significantly associated with student achievement, the overall magnitude of the relationship may be relatively modest. Teacher self-efficacy should therefore be considered one component within a broader system of teacher knowledge, instructional practice, school context, leadership, and student characteristics.
8. Conclusion
The results demonstrate that teachers included in the study reported desirable levels of self-efficacy in instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. Among the three dimensions, student engagement received the highest mean score, whereas classroom management received the lowest.
The findings have several implications for educational policy and teacher professional development. First, professional-development programs should explicitly address the three dimensions of teacher self-efficacy rather than treating teacher effectiveness as a general and undifferentiated construct. Second, professional learning should incorporate practical activities such as demonstration teaching, peer observation, coaching, feedback, and reflective practice. Third, classroom-management training should address preventive strategies, classroom routines, instructional time management, and positive teacher–student relationships. Fourth, teachers should be supported in adopting interactive instructional practices that provide students with meaningful opportunities to ask questions, express ideas, collaborate, and solve problems.
Overall, strengthening teacher self-efficacy should be regarded as an important component of school improvement and instructional-quality initiatives. Nevertheless, future research should examine this construct using larger and more diverse samples and should combine teacher self-report measures with classroom observations and objective indicators of student achievement.
9. Practical Implications
The findings suggest several practical implications for schools and educational policymakers.
First, teacher professional-development programs should be structured around the three domains of instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement.
Second, in-service training should move from lecture-based formats toward practice-oriented professional learning involving modeling, peer observation, coaching, feedback, and lesson study.
Third, classroom-management programs should strengthen teachers’ capacity to establish effective routines, prevent disruptive behavior, manage instructional time, and create supportive teacher–student relationships.
Fourth, schools should encourage instructional approaches that promote active student engagement through open-ended questioning, classroom dialogue, collaborative learning, inquiry, and problem-solving.
Fifth, teacher evaluation systems should not rely exclusively on students’ test scores. Indicators such as instructional quality, classroom management, teacher–student interaction, feedback, and student engagement should also be considered.
Finally, school leaders should create organizational conditions that enable teachers to experiment with instructional approaches, receive professional feedback, and learn collaboratively from colleagues.
10. Limitations
Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study relied on a self-report measure; consequently, participants’ responses may have been influenced by social desirability or their subjective perceptions of professional competence. Second, the sample was restricted to teachers in public primary schools who had more than 10 years of teaching experience. Therefore, the findings should not be generalized directly to secondary-school teachers or novice teachers.
Third, because the research employed a descriptive-survey design, causal conclusions cannot be drawn. Future studies should employ longitudinal or experimental designs to investigate whether professional-development interventions that increase teacher self-efficacy also produce measurable improvements in instructional quality and student achievement.